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Psychology of Violence Xe0 Anima, rldsawrica to.cuni, •15514:2131mes 2011. eq. N. No. 2. tar- iSi narmit.ongturinnumucoNom Observing Coercive Control Beyond Intimate Partner Violence: Examining the Perceptions of Professionals About Common Tactics Used in Victimization Jacquelynn F. Duran Laura Johnson Rutgers. The State University of New Jersey Temple University Gretchen L. Hoge Judy L. Postrnus Lewis University University of Maryland Objective: Coercive control has traditionally been used as a concept to describe the coercive strategies used by perpetrators in intimate partner violence (IPV). Yet. these strategies we often experienced across a wide range of victimizations including child abuse. trafficking. IPV. sexual violence, and elder abuse. Professionals working with victims and/or perpetrators of coercive control are uniquely positioned to describe how they have observed coercive control in their clients, allowing for an examination of commonalities across vicUmszation types. This study explored the perceptions of professionals who identified common tactics used by perpetrators to isolate. groom. and control individuals—Wel/rot Key stakeholders (N 22) with expertise working with perpetrators and victims of child abuse, elder abuse, WV. human trafficking. and gang or colt recruitment completed semistruchned interviews to discuss their perspectives of predatory tactics. Raabe: Using a directed content analysis procedure. emergent themes revealed that perpetrators engage individuals in exploitative relationships by (a) identifying potential victims. (b) infiltrating lives through grooming. lc) isolating to gain control. and (d) maintaining control through any meatus necessary. Conclusions: Although nuanced victimization experiences exist. profes- sionals working with perpetrators andfor victims of abuse describe a common pattern of predatory strategies implemented by perpetrators that transcends rt.:limit:anon type. Applying the language of coercive control to these tactics broadens the recognition of instances when an individual's personal freedoms are limited by another individual's exertion of control. 4: a Kmscerds: coercive control. predatory tactics. vicumszation. professionals. interviews The concept of coercive control (Stark. 2007) was initially theory for understanding intimate partner violence (IPV: Ham- developed to explain the dynamics of violence used by perpetra- herger. Larsen. & Lchrner. 2017). However, victims of child tors against their intimate partners and has long been a primary abuse. sexual violence, elder abuse, and trafficking are all subject to the same type of coercive control tactics (Lc., grooming and isolation) that draw and trap them in relationships with their perpetrators and alienate them from their support systems. Even This article was published Online First October IS. 2020. gangs and cults recruit members using similar coercive practices. O' lacquelynn E l)uron. School of Social Work. Roger. The Stale Uni- This article seeks to expand the concept of coercive control from sasity of New Jersey; 0 Laura Johnson. School of Social Work. Temple a singular focus on IPV to a broader one based on the use of University; 0 Cketchen I.. Hoge. Department of Social Work. Lewis Uni- coercive control tactics that, at the most general level. could venaty: Judy L. PC611111.n. SeFICOI of Social Work, University of Maryland. improve identification across various types of victimization. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Karen Zurlo who served as an expert consultant on older adults and Delaney Cronin who Hence. the purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of helped to coordinate this project and write the organiational report. This professionals working with or on behalf of victims to derive a research received funding from the Department of Children and Families framework of commonly used victimization tactics. and Department of Human Services. Stale of New Jersey. under Contract I7AAMA with Rutgers University. The points of view shared in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the Theory of Coercive Control official position or policies of the Department of Children and Families or Coercive control theory draws parallels between psychological the Department of Human Services. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jacque- coercion techniques and the tactics used by perpetrators of abuse in lynn F. Duran. School of Social Work. Rutgers. The State University of intimate relationships to entrap victims. particularly women (Stark. New Jersey. 390 George Street. Suite 713. New Brunswick. Nl 08901. 2007). Stark described how coercive control is founded on gender E-mail: jduroneissw.rulgasedu inequality and the devaluation of women that targets the victim's 144 3502-023 Page 1 of 11 EFIA_00001600 EFTA00156941 PERSPECTIVES OF PROFESSIONALS ABOUT COERCIVE CONTROL 145 sense of agency and results in a loss of freedom through domina- (Mishna. McLuckie. & Saini, 2009). and financial scams and tion by the perpetrator. More recently. the adaptation of coercive exploitation of older adults (Langenderfer & Shimp. 2001). Traf- control in criminal law in England and Scotland has demonstrated fickers also rely on the development of trust. doing so by helping the applicability of this framework for victims who experience victimized youth and young adults in ways they need. such as by these patterns of behavior perpetrated by family members or providing shelter. food. clothing, money. personal items, or trans- intimate partners, regardless of gender or sexual orientation (Stark portation (Reid 2016). & Hester. 2019). Perpetrators use tactics such as physical or sexual violence. intimidation, isolation. and undue influence to suppress Desensitizing the Victim an individual's freedom (Static. 2007). Perpetrators also use grooming tactics by promising to end the abuse. seeking help for Another key tactic in the grooming of victims involves desen- problematic behaviors. or offering gifts. Perpetrators physically sitization through gradual. incremental exposure to abuse or ex- and emotionally isolate victims from supportive networks of ploitation that limits victims' feelings of distress as the frequency friends, family, coworkers. or helping providers to have total and intensity of acts slowly increase. In cases of sexual predation. control (Stark, 2007). Ultimately, the tactics used create a condi- perpetrators begin by verbally and physically desensitizing youth tion of authority for the perpetrator—a sense of fear in the victim to sexual contact (Olson et al., 2007) and using previous sexual and an "invisible cage"—to perpetuate the victim's entrapment acts as leverage for engagement in new acts (Mishna et al.. 2009). (Stark. 2007). Stark (2007) highlighted how there are similar Traffickers often use peers. such as friends and boyfriends, to tactics used across various types of victimization, such as isolation recruit new victims and glamorize the sex trade by describing it as of victims and rituals of degradation: however. he also identified a smart way to make money that also demonstrates an individual's partialities central to IPV such as its frequency and direct gender worth (Reid. 2016). Older adults may acclimate to new caregivers entrapment that distinguish IPV from other fonns of power and and surroundings. readily responding to financial requests for help control. (Whitty. 2013). Among cults, involvement incrementally increases Dutton and Goodman (2005) have also conceptualized coercive through engagement in activities like bible study. thus keeping control as it relates to 1PV. These authors suggested that perpetra- victims unaware of their increased entrapment in the group (Singer tors prime victims for coercion through four means: (a) creating & Lalich, 1995). the expectation of negative consequences for resistance to de- mands. (b) creating or exploiting the victim's vulnerabilities, (c) Creating a Family-Like Bond wearing down the victim's resistance to coercion. and (d) facili- Perpetrators also provide an alternative family connection for tating and exploiting emotional and other forms of victim depen- victims. Research on gangs suggests that youth perceive member- dency. Surveillance is also a key element for exerting control and ship as an escape from their own dysfunctional families (Moore & creating fear (Dutton & Goodman. 2005). Hagedorn, 2001). Victims of online sexual predation recount en- These conceptualizations of the theory of coercive control pro- gaging in cybersex or meeting for sexual encounters as a way to vide an important lens for examining coercive tactics used by engage with someone who would listen to them or as a distraction perpetrators of IPV that might also extend to behaviors used across from trouble at home (Mishna et al.. 2009). 'The idea of perpetra- different types of victimization. building on Stark's (2007) iden- tors providing love and affection not found elsewhere has been tification of commonalities between coercive control in 1PV and found in research on sexual predation of youth (Olson et al.. 2007) other contexts of power and control. Coercive control is the phe- and in trafficking (Reid. 2016). nomena of victimization that is grounded in relational interactions. namely, behavioral tactics. such as the use of grooming. including normalizing behaviors. and isolation as mechanisms in which Gift Giving perpetrators gain and maintain power over their victims. What Romancing and gift giving is also used to lure victims during the follows is a review of such tactics used by perpetrators of other grooming process. "Love bombing" refers to providing a victim forms of abuse beyond IPV. with extreme attention and affection, or by offering a prize in exchange for an agreement by extremist groups (Hills. 2015). Grooming Tactics sexual predators (CiAttu., 1994). or traffickers (Reid. 2016). This form of targeting and control is also used in cases of exploitation Grooming techniques used by perpetrators center on establish- of older adults, where a perpetrator will send a small gift such as ing trust with the victim. desensitizing the victim to the abuse or flowers hoping that the victim will then send the requested money exploitation they are experiencing. providing a sense of family. in return (Whitty. 2013). and romancing or buying gifts for the victim. In some cases. a perpetrator will use high pressure tactics to groom the victim. High-Pressure Tactics In some situations. high-pressure tactics may be used. such as in Establishing Trust scams where victims are lured into paying money up front for Perpetrators groom victims by first establishing trust. which goods or services, or for a prize to be released upon receipt of often begins with the cultivation of a relationship between the "customs duties" paid by the victim (Langenderfer & Shimp. perpetrator. victim, and sometimes the victim's family (Olson. 2001). In these instances the perpetrator skillfully focuses the Daggs, Ellevold. & Rogers. 2007). Trust has been described as a victim's attention on the reward pushing aside any concerns raised central dynamic in cases of online relationships and cyber abuse by the victim (Langenderfer & Shimp. 2001). 3502-023 Page 2 of 11 EFIA_00001601 EFTA00156942 146 DURON, JOHNSON. HOGE. AND POSTMUS Isolation Techniques types of victim experiences of abuse. control. and/or exploitation. Coupled with grooming tactics. isolation techniques are another signature approach involved in coercive behaviors to maintain power and control over victims. Isolation may occur in physical or Method mental forms and serves to keep victims away from social sup- This qualitative study took a phenomenological approach (Cre- ports. including family and friends (Baldwin. Fehrenbacher. & Eisenman. 2015). swell. 1998) based on data collected as part of a statewide initiative to understand predatory alienation—a new term created by an advocacy group to describe Physical Isolation a person's extreme undue influence on. or coercive persuasion or Perpetrators act as gatekeepers who control incoming and out- psychologically damaging manipulation of another person that results going information. using isolation to limit victim communication in physical or emotional harm or the loss of financial assets. disrupts with those who provide social support (Singer. 1992: Whitsctt & a fluent-child relationship. leads to a deceptive or exploitative rela- Kent. 2003). In cults or with older adults. isolation may involve tionship. or isolates the person from family and friends. (New Jersey taking control over the victim's social. physical. and/or online Senate Bill 2562: htips://legiscancom/Nlitext/S2562/20I6) environment. including how they spend their time (Singer & Lalich. 1995: Whitsett & Kent. 2003: Whiny. 2013). Physical The charge by the state was to understand common predatory• isolation may also include the geographical relocation of a victim practices used to victimize individuals across the life span. to another place away from their support networks. as in cases of The research team was composed of academic experts on child - trafficking (Reid. 2016). Traffickers isolate youth by checking and abuse. IPV. trafficking. and elder abuse who had familiarity with controlling access to cell phones and social media. and by chang- predatory practices particular to these subjects. All experts iden- ing phone numbers and passwords (Reid. 2016). tified as cisgender females between the ages of early 20s and late 505 and identified as White or Latina. Mental Isolation Participants Mental isolation occurs when the perpetrator creates or enlarges a psychological and emotional separation between the victim and The research team used agency referrals and snowball sampling their support networks, so the perpetrator can then occupy that to identify professionals who represented a wide variety of human space (Olson et al.. 2007). In trafficking situations. women have service and criminal justice positions with expertise in predatory• described how their traffickers limited their exposure to the outside practices. A list of potential participants was created by the re- world: traffickers would call frequently as a way to monopolize search team with suggestions from several state departments (e.g.. their attention (Baldwin a al.. 2015). Cults may interfere with a child welfare. human services) from the researchers home Mate. In victim's ability to accurately assess and react to their environment addition to this list. at the conclusion of each interview. each through control tactics such as the disparaging of members precult professional was asked to provide the names of other passible lives (Whitsett & Kent. 2003). Victims of elder abuse who arc participants. highly stressed and held captive may be manipulated into believing Within the United States. social service providers most com- in a false version of reality beyond their confines. leading them to monly work with one particular population (e.g.. victims of IPV') form bonds with and become dependent on the perpetrator for fear as opposed to victims of coercive control more broadly. As such. of the outside world (Singer. 1992). we determined that the inclusion of various professional roles Current literature reveals how perpetrators of various forms of would best facilitate the goal of achieving a comprehensive un- abuse use multiple. often similar tactics to exert power and control derstanding of the issue of predatory practices as it pertained to over individuals. Questions remain as to which of these tactics arc various victim types rather than specific professional role or type commonly identified by professionals working with or on behalf of of victimization. Hence. criteria for participation included profes- victims or perpetrators from a variety of settings to inform screen- sional engagement in issues of predatory victimization through ing efforts across a range of victimization types. This study ad- advocacy or direct services (e.g.. human services. law enforce- dresses this gap by examining how coercive control is experienced ment. legal services). Professionals worked with a variety of across types of abuse from adolescence to adulthood. Professionals victims including those experiencing child abuse. human traffick- working with or on behalf of victims often have exposure to ing. IPV. gang activity, elder abuse. and cultic influence. Although multiple narratives of coercion. allowing for greater breadth of most professionals interacted with victims who had experienced discovery in consideration of numerous types of victimization. some form of interpersonal abuse. others worked with or on behalf of individuals who had been isolated from family and friends Research Goal 1: To examine the perceptions of profession- through coercion. A few professionals. particularly those in law als working with or on behalf of victims regarding how coercive control is applied across various types of victim experiences of abuse, control. and/or exploitation. IPV professionals included in this study work with survivors of all types of abuse including physical. sexual. emotional. and financial, as well as stalking and dating violence. depending on what abuse experiences are Research Goal 2: To identify the perceptions of professionals presented by victims seeking services. Hence, the term IPV in this article working with or on behalf of victims regarding what common includes all these types of abuse that are perpetrated in intimate relation- strategies are used to facilitate coercive control across various ships. 3502-023 Page 3 of 11 EFFA_00001602 EFTA00156943 PERSPECTIVES OF PROFESSIONALS ABOUT COERCIVE CONTROL 147 enforcement. also worked with perpetrators of interpersonal abuse Interviems and coercion. Some professionals had experience researching is- sues of coercion in addition to engaging in advocacy efforts. A semistructured interview guide was developed based on an The majority of professionals were over the age of 40 years in-depth literature review of predatory behaviors using terms in- (90.9%) and identified as White (86.4%). Slightly more than half cluding predatory alienation, coercive control. and undue influ- of the sample was male (59.1%). and the majority held a master's ence. The guide was reviewed by the team of researchers and degree or Ph.D.. law. or medical degree (72.7%). Slightly more assistants and edited for salience. comprehension, and clarity. The than half of the sample worked in a role consistent with service interview guide (see Appendix) covered the participant's under- providers (59.1%). whereas other participants worked in law en- standing of predatory• behaviors. professional role and experiences forcement and legal services (40.9%). Service providers included related to predatory victimization. identification of victims, risk direct service providers. expert consultants. and advocates. Law factors, and common predatory tactics. Nine core areas of ques- enforcement and legal services included professionals such as tioning were pursued with follow-up prompts initiated as needed. prosecutors. investigators. and lawyers serving in administrative Though the team used the term ••predatory alienation." most par- roles. Most of the professionals worked in a nonspecific field with ticipants were unfamiliar with the term. Once defined. participants multiple populations (27.3%). but many also worked in the fields instead focused on predatory tactics used or experienced by their of trafficking and sexual abuse (22.7%). The majority of partici- clients. As such. the research team also adjusted the questions to pants had been in their current professional positions for an aver- focus on generic predatory• practices instead of using the term age of 12.08 years (SD = 9.49). "predatory alienation." The semistructured interview guide al- lowed the research team to study complex phenomena guided by theory. with the flexibility to elicit descriptive information about Data Collection the lived experience of participants (GaRena. 2013). The research team contacted 33 professionals via c-mail and invited them to participate in a one-time• in-depth interview on a Data Analysis date and at a location that was convenient for them. Of these, three A directed content analysis approach was used to code interview declined to participate because of lack of agency permission or transcripts. using NVivo to manage the data (Hsieh & Shannon. other reasons and eight did not respond. A total of 22 professionals 2005: Vaismoradi. Tunmen. & Bondas. 2013). The directive ap- participated in semistructured interviews between July and Sep- proach was deductively informed by sensitizing concepts drawn tember 2017. Interviews ranged from 21 to 118 min. with an from the literature review. such as "isolation techniques" and average interview completed in 56 min. The final sample size was "grooming tactics." that acted as an initial coding scheme for the determined by evaluating the quality of information gathered (San- coding process. Following preparation that included reading all delowski. 1995). which included an evaluation of saturation of transcripts, a member of the research team applied the initial ideas and repeated descriptions (Benaux. 1981: Lincoln & Guba coding scheme to participant responses by question. but also 1985). Saturation was defined in terms of the discovery and inductively identified new codes that allowed the codebook to be stability of codes, but also in terms of a full exploration of the expanded and refined (Hsieh & Shannon. 2005). After completing meaning of such codes (Hennink. Kaiser. & Marconi. 2017). the first level of analysis. the researcher compiled the codes that Interviews were conducted in person. via phone. or over a video emerged into categories and subcategories. To enhance the rigor of = conferencing service. The study protocol described here was ap- the analysis. a second member of the research team then indepen- proved by the university's institutional review board. dently coded the interviews. Codes from this second level of Two research team members attended each interview, with one analysis were also collapsed into categories and subcategories. The facilitating the interview and the other taking detailed notes on a team members met to review and refine codes. coming to consen- laptop. Each interview was also audio recorded. To protect confi- sus about the codebook and then applied these codes to refine their dentiality. each participant was assigned a numeric identifier. analyses. Memos were written and discussed throughout the anal- Interview notes referred to the participant by this unique identifier ysis process to manage each researcher's views of the data, assist and did not include any information that could be used to identify in structuring the content. and reconcile codes. The coders then the individual. Members of the research team debriefed following compared categories and subcategories. discussing interpretations each interview and then transcribed the interviews using the audio and refining these groupings into a joint consensus version (Patton. recording and notes. 2002). There were no significant discrepancies in codes and cat- To ensure that the research team accurately interpreted key egories. and differences that arose in coding were easily resolved. themes expressed by the study participants (1Crefting. 1991). mem- Member checking was then completed with a subsample of par- ber checking interviews with five of the 22 professionals were ticipants. such that each person represented the diversity of victim completed to gather feedback on the findings and recommenda- experiences including 1PV. human trafficking. gangs and youth tions. These five participants were selected because they each violence, cults, and elder exploitation. Notes taken during member worked with a different population represented within the study. checking were analyzed by both coders and used to refine the To ascertain feedback. a summary of study findings and a sum- descriptions of emergent themes. mary of recommendations were separately presented to the partic- ipants, who were then asked to share their impressions with a Findings member of the research team. Findings from the member checking process were used to expand upon study findings by aiding in the Interviews with professionals revealed four primary strategics interpretation of themes. exemplifying a coercive control pattern of approach and tactics 3502-023 Page 4 of 11 EFIA_00001603 EFTA00156944 148 DURONJOHNSON. HOGE. AND POSTMUS commonly used by perpetrators across abuse types and victim ages guage differences and legal status. could also attract the interest of to engage individuals in exploitative relationships. These strategies predators. Although anyone is susceptible to predatory behaviors. are as follows: (a) identifying potential victims. (b) infiltrating these risk factors increased the likelihood of exposure to and lives through grooming. (c) isolating to gain control. and (d) experience of victimization. One participant considered how maintaining control through any means necessary. Within each youths' desire to be pan of something could be a hazard: theme. we describe strategies described by professionals that glob- ally apply across victims. Collectively, these strategies illuminate Thai dynamic is wired into your psyche for your entire life. Just the playground changes ... So I think that these master manipulators. a process used by perpetrators to coercively gain and maintain these predators key in on it. they know that some kids are mote control. susceptible to wanting to be ... Sonic kith their desire to belong to The findings presented here identify commonalities reported anything is greater ... some kids may have the tools necessary to consistently. regardless of victim type. As one professional re- resist. Maybe a strong family. strong religion. stronger set of friends flected. "I've worked in the domestic violence and sexual violence and values so that they resist any type of lute. But there are other kids field for a long time and human trafficking. For everything we talk that have absolutely nothing so any group is better than no group. Any about the isolation of coercive control tactics. It's the same thing attention becomes better than no attention ... Igangst to me. It's what a perp does to control their victim." [human trafficking] If any distinctions in strategics were found by victim Although similar vulnerabilities exist across groups. there were type. these arc also presented. Quotes have been ascribed to the also some variations based on age or developmental capacity. participant's primary area of professional engagement. such as Older adults and adolescents arc often perceived to be trusting or human trafficking. A range of quotes from professionals with gullible and easy to exploit. Older adults were described as having mixed areas of victim expertise arc presented to demonstrate how higher levels of dependency. lower levels of cognitive functioning. commonalities were indicated across participants. Congruity in less mobility. or greater health issues. These vulnerabilities were experiences described across the diversity of victimization types identified for both elders in the community and those in institu- illustrates how coercive control applies to predatory interactions tional settings. However. one professional noted that community across a range of circumstances. dwellers may face more social isolation making it "easier to disconnect them from other people." [IPV] Among adolescents and young adults, risks were also linked to greater exposure to Identifying Potential VIctims social media gaming. the Internet. and phone technologies that heighten perpetrator access to these youths. Participants also re- Professionals were asked to describe what makes individuals ported that youths' lack of cognitive and emotional maturity or vulnerable to perpetrators. Participants indicated that some perpe- experiences of developmental delays could increase risks for vic- trators lure victims. whereas others target them. In this way. timization. perpetration is a process that involves considering the potential for baiting someone and calculating the potential response to gain something. The "something" perpetrators want is oftentimes power Infiltrating Lives Through Grooming and control over the individual: this leads the perpetrator to make demands. both of the person and their property. One participant Professionals described how perpetrators carefully craft rela- described this motivation as "self-satisfaction out of being able to tionships with victims by cultivating victim allegiance through control someone else." [cults] Consistently. participants described psychological coercion. This process generally occurs over the perpetrators gain as having someone "do certain things you want course of weeks or months and is distinguished from single event them to do" [youth] including granting access to personal finances. crimes. At the core of the grooming process is gaining the victim's fulfilling sexual demands. acting as a servant. or committing trust. often through fulfillment of the victim's needs and goals. crimes like stealing goods or selling drugs. Professionals across the These needs can be physical such as a need for money or food. areas of expertise noted a common vulnerability for victimization. relational such as a need for friendship. or aspirational such as the One participant shared. goal for advancement. The most common way perpetrators enact grooming is through "love bombing." Participants described this In each case the vulnerability is going to be different. But these guys tactic as offering compliments, affection and gifts to a victim to do not pick on you because of your vulnerabilities. They exploit your make them feel special. One professional described this as "flat- vulnerabilities... the reason they target you is because of something tery. but to an excessive extent." [cults] For youth it may be that they want ... that you have. not something you do not have. The serving as a "Romeo ... who will give them care and love ... vulnerability in these cases is as much defined by what people do have Initially. they will give them clothes. food, a place to stay. get their as it is by their weaknesses ... and they're not selected because they are weak. {WV) nails done." [human trafficking] For older adults. perpetrators may run errands for them or complete tasks they cannot do themselves. Although global risk for perpetration exists. there are also elevated He would biing her groceries, he would stop by and see her after work personal. interpersonal. or environmental vulnerabilities that make ... he would cut the lawn for her. He would do a lot of things that she individuals susceptible to victimization. Professionals recounted needed to do that she couldn't do herself ... He started filling a lot of stories of individuals who were exploited because of risk factors those gaps in her life. folder Muhl that included lack of family involvement or supportive systems. feelings of loneliness. social isolation, and limited options or The gradual dependency that is established between victims and resources. In many cases. participants indicated that the victims perpetrators helps perpetrators create new memories that disrupt they served identified as female. Cultural factors. especially lan- victims' beliefs. One service provider explained. 3502-023 Page 5 of 11 EFIA_00001604 EFTA00156945 PERSPECTIVES OF PROFESSIONALS ABOUT COERCIVE CONTROL 149 Te comnton one is to criticize or somehow upset or destroy the their feeding, their grooming. their toileting. their physician's appoint- existing belief system or contacts ... by destroying a connection ments. and their money. [older adults] with the people you love. oftentimes by alienating someone horn their belief system. so that could be from their family or from their religious [This control becomes] regulation of everyday life. beginning to set beliefs. spiritual beliefs. social beliefs, that son of thing. ... "well if rules and expectations. (IPV) you love me you'll stop doing that"... so it's the severing of ties ... the use of guilt ... [cults] Creating distance between victims and their social supports often includes restricting communication. particularly by limiting access Incremental escalation of exploitation is another technique used to a mobile phone. In reference to an older adult who was victim- that desensitizes victims. A participant who worked with victims ized by a caretaker. one professional shared. "Slowly and slowly of cults referenced this as - the foot in the door technique"2 in [sic] the phone calls stop coming into the house. They didn't really sharing how victims may be swindled for more money after stop coming. they just hid the phone or turned off the ringer." making a small charitable contribution that appeals to the victim's [older adults] Preexisting limited social contact may accelerate a sense of compassion or "good- nature. In reference to gang activ- perpetrator's plans for severing ties to the victim's support systems ity. another participant reflected. "There is always an escalation of to dominate the victim's life and promote dependency. Isolation as violence. They start them out with small crimes like robbery. then an essential dynamic in perpetration fosters control for whatever selling drugs. and eventually shootings" [gangs] benefit the perpetrator desires. Professionals described the role of technology in grooming as a The point of isolation ... is to make you increasingly dependent to way of facilitating communication. Perpetrators use the Internet. your own sense of reality. That also makes your own sense of self and chat rooms. social media and gaming platforms to find victims. self-esteem dependent on his approval ... So. isolation is not only ;d particularly for trafficking and sexual abuse. Through virtual com- universal. it's devastatingly important element ... but in itself its munication. the perpetrator becomes familiar with the victim and meaningless unless there's some other set of demands. IIPVI makes increasingly larger requests. These requests intensify as entrapment progresses until a victim is convinced to meet in These are people who are using intentional techniques to influence the person. The ability of perpetrators to maintain control over a target ... sometimes to get their money or property for older people. victim. even in the absence of physical restraint. was discussed by for young people ii might he for purposes of controlling them for sex. work. or prostitution. (curb) some participants: "A lot of them ]victims) are 'compliant.' They are not really compliant because they don't have physical chains As described by participants. perpetrator demands can include a on them but there are psychological chains on them in order to variety of victimizing outcomes including assault, prostitution. maintain control and compliance from the victim." [human traf- trafficking. servitude. financial exploitation, gang activities. or ficking] cultic involvement. As isolation ensues. perpetrators will use mul- tiple tactics to establish and retain control. including the use of Isolating to Gain Control violence. As grooming occurs. professionals described how perpetrators begin to isolate victims from their support systems as a way of Maintaining Control Through Any Means Necessary increasing dependency on the perpetrator. Isolation serves to en- The height of perpetrator control is often exhibited through the trap the victim in the relationship. making it difficult for the victim gradual transferring of power from the victim to the perpetrator. to leave the perpetrator. frequently achieved without violence. although abuse and threats These groups. in order to control that person. have to isolate ihem may be used as necessary to retain control. Several professionals from everything and have to isolate them from everyone in order to described how control is overwhelmingly an achievement of dom- have the focus on them. fruits] inance—over body. thoughts. and feelings. One participant stated. 'This coercive control has the cumulative effect of entrapment . .. Isolation from friends and family is a tactic across the board... taking Coercive control is control without physical boundaries. It crosses people out of the circle of individuals that would mmte say "hey this a red flag" or you know. do you need some support? 'human physical spaces" such that domination is achieved even when the trafficking] victim is not within physical proximity of the perpetrator. [IPVJ Once they cross that line where the combination of trust. isolation. Incrementally. perpetrators consume the victim's time with con- and subordination are achieved and may be met with fear and stant contact, either electronically or in person. Perpetrators begin shame. victims feel "like there's a point of no return. they have no to influence the places victims go by exerting strong opinions or other options but to stay." [youth] One participant offered this demands about activities. encouraging exclusive time between the explanation: victim and perpetrator. and facilitating an expectation that the victim should seek permission from the perpetrator to engage in The psychological effects we see are isolation. fear. not knowing where to turn for help. They do not want to he the victim so they may activities. In some situations, the perpetrator may encourage reli- he [durum to report things. They do not want to be looked at as ance of the victim on the perpetrator as the primary mode of stupid or senile or losing it People are often depressed. 'older adults] transportation. As control becomes more pervasive. the perpetrator will restrict and monitor access to basic necessities. 2 The -foot in the door technique" was coined by Freedman and Fraser IAn outsider may notice that) there is usually the one person in then 11966) to describe how individuals can be induced to engage in tasks they life that ... it menu dui they have control over their medications. would rather not do. 3502-023 Page 6 of 11 EFIA_00001605 EFTA00156946 150 DURON. JOHNSON. HOGE. AND POSTMUS As victims contend with their situations. potentially questioning or Ultimately retaining control is often about "[using] a lot of resisting their circumstances. perpetrators implement a variety of emotion rather than an appeal to reason" (cults] so that there devices that perpetuate fear and hopelessness. The mechanisms for "doesn't always have to be physical abuse but the fear of being asserting control for extended periods may include surveilling the physically hurt it is more a psychological lactic." (WV] Coercive victim's whereabouts and engagements. withholding things and control uses tactics to reinforce submission such that "perpetrators information. threatening. and manipulating. One participant de- may even threaten to leave, and that victim begins to fear being left scribed some of these mechanisms: alone, and they are caught in a web of dependency on their perpetrator: IIPV] Physical isolation—milieu control. if someone controls the environ- ment they control the money. they control the contacts with outside Discussion people and friends, they'll criticize the shopping. criticize the way the laundry is done and folded—they become critical and they undermine Although coercive control is frequently discussed in the field of the person's self-esteem. Undermining the relationship with others by WV (Dutton & Goodman. 2005: Johnson. 2008: Stark. 2007). it is criticizing, by finding fault ... they find the sore point. Typically. it's less often used to describe the dynamics of violence that occur something that somebody has revealed to the person themselves. across other types of abuse. The purpose of this study was to [cults] explore the experiences of professionals working with or on behalf of victims to identify the approach and common predatory tactics There may be strong messages "to accentuate the vulnerabilities that are the sine qua non of coercive control across various forms of the person. They start telling people they aren't able to do of abuse. Although theories on grooming tactics exist. scholarship something. you can't do this. you can't leave the house. it is very tends to silo this knowledge according to specific types of exploi- dangerous out there." [older adults] Messages of praise often tation. Findings demonstrate that there is a common pattern of follow degrading remarks as a way of demonstrating benevolence. predatory strategies that transcend the nuanced experiences of Violence may be deemed necessary when victim submission waiv- particular victimization types. These common patterns are part of a ers and can include physical. sexual. and emotional abuse that broader framework of coercive control that includes (a) identifying "tends to be frequent but low level." (IPVJ This repertoire of potential victims. (b) infiltrating lives through grooming. (c) iso- tactics is confounding for a victim. One participant explains. lating to gain control. and (d) maintaining control through any means necessary. Taken together. these strategies illuminate a A lot of people will not even define it as violence—pushing shoving. common process used by predators to gain and maintain control even strangling ... because it doesn't result in injury ... There's over their victims. As Stark and Hester (2019) noted. coercive intimidation. There's {sic] threats against family. children ... What all coercive control is based on is the cost of noncompliance is greater control can be reconceptualized as "a strategy for establishing than the can of compliance ... They have an exaggerated response to dominance across a spectrum of relationships" (p. 98). The term a minor infraction that has them walking on pins and needles ... Once coercive control applied globally to describe the process whereby he shows that level of rage. he doesn't have to exercise it again ... an individual is gradually exploited or victimized could aid in early Treating you like a servant—basically commanding you to service... identification of the problem. There's regulation of everyday life, setting rules and expectations ... Notably. participants in this study suggested that as a first step Them are general practices of rewards and punishment ... They in the victimization process. predators connect with potential tar- create dilemmas of my way a the highway ... They create a series of gets to assess the opportunity for exploitation. As pan of this initial tests of loyalty ...That has the effect of isolating you and making you selection. predators often recruit their victims deliberately based more dependent. IIPV] on a particular set of assets or attributes that they observe and find alluring. Essentially. victim selection involves perpetrators at- The various tactics are executed by perpetrators as they arc tempting to connect with individuals where the possibility of needed to keep individuals isolated from others and continue the exerting influence to manipulate individuals choices and behav- entrapment. Some tactics may serve as a consequence for disobey- iors exists. This is a unique finding. as most theories of coercive ing such as "the actual physical perpetration of violence if they did control discuss the mechanisms that predators use to gain and reach out to their support circle" [human trafficking] or "being maintain power and control once they are already in a relationship shunned. for experiencing] unreasonable confinement." [older with the victim. but not the initial contact. For example. Dutton adults] Other tactics intensify the victim's fears by deliberate and Goodman (2005) highlighted the means through which per- actions or lies that magnify the pressure to comply: petrators prime their victims through coercion once a relationship has already been established. By understanding the recruitment ... they are quick to get them pregnant too. They are real quick processes used by predators. more targeted prevention efforts can because once you tie them with a baby ... they'll start telling the girl be implemented. Further. participants identified several sociocul- you know this baby is part of the gang now. Shethe belongs to the tural vulnerabilities that reflect how characteristics such as ethnic- gang ... They threaten her and her baby's lives. They are too afraid ity. gender. and poverty are associated with greater risk of victim- to speak up. The police cannot otter them real safety. (gangs) ization. In describing coercive control. Stark (2007) has long held Iles] very much emotional. sonic of die scams involve saying that a that societal and cultural forces such as sexual inequality and family n.ember is in jail or bun ... they are able to be convinced and discrimination are linked to the coercive control experience. create an urgency that something has to be done quickly. They Following an initial introduction between a predator and an capitalize on vulnerability in mental capacity. dementia. or forgetful- individual. a gradual infiltration process unfolds using grooming ness. 'older adults] strategies and isolation techniques to engage the individual in 3502-023 Page 7 of 11 EFIA_00001606 EFTA00156947 PERSPECTIVES OF PROFESSIONALS ABOUT COERCIVE CONTROL 151 developing trust and fostering a relationship. Grooming is a pred- control may be used in the absence of violence, along with vio- atory tactic that is often discussed in the context of child sexual lence. or as a precursor for later acts of violence (Johnson. 2008). abuse (Gilgun. 1994: Olson ct al.. 2007) although it has been used In some instances. nonviolent coercive control strategies are suf- to describe the process in which predators establish trust with their ficient for maintaining victim submission (Johnson. 2008: Stark & victims in other violent contexts (Binetti. 2015: Roe-Sepowitz. Hester. 2019). However, predators may use threats of or actual Hicklc, Dahlstedt. & Gallagher. 2014). Participants discussed physical or sexual violence. or other tactics, to incite fear and grooming as a coercive process used by offenders to incrementally ensure submission. particularly if victim compliance begins to establish control by using strategies such as gift giving or love waiver. These tactics may also escalate in nature over time and bombing (GiIsm.. 1994: Hills. 2015: Reid. 2016). fostering a become more frequent. violent. or fear inducing. family connection (Moore & Hagedom. 2001: Mishna ct al.. 2009: Whitty. 2013). and incremental escalation (Olson et al.. 2007: Limitations Singer & Lalich, 1995). Although establishing trust (Mishna ct al.. 2009: Olson et al.. 2007: Reid. 2016) also emerged as a key Although this study provided unique insight into how predators element in the coercion process, participants discussed building use coercive control tactics to maintain power across victimization trust in the context of fostering dependency. Other mechanisms types. there are several limitations that should be considered dur- used to foster this dependency that were highlighted less fre- ing interpretation. This study was exploratory, requiring further quently in the literature were reframing experiences and the vic- research to validate the findings. Because purposive sampling tims understanding of self. as well as appealing to emotion and within one state was used. these themes may not generalize to serving as a savior. Collectively this list illustrates that predators other populations and circumstances. Although this study explores have a toolkit of manipulative tactics that they use as they strive to predatory practices. the information collected reflects the opinions gain victims' confidence and incrementally entrap them. These of professionals in human service and criminal justice and not tactics transcend victimization type: predators tailor their groom- victims or perpetrators themselves. Additionally. though this study ing strategies to the unique vulnerabilities of their victims. covers diversity in ages. settings. and abuse types. the literature Consistent with previous scholarship on physical and mental and the data from professionals did not specifically consider the isolation (Baldwin a al.. 2015: Singer. 1992: Whitsett & Kent. role that culture plays in coercive control. Finally, participants did 2003). participants discussed techniques used by predators to not distinguish between the different types of abuse (i.e.. physical. maintain control of victims by consuming their time and space sexual, emotional. financial. stalking. or dating) under the IPV (Singer & Lalich. 1995: Stark, 2007: Whitsett & Kent. 2003). lens. Perpetrators dominate all aspects of victims' lives by constantly exerting their presence and slowly reducing contact with others. Research Implications The disconnection between victims and essential sources of sup- port allows perpetrators to enforce a state of complete reliance of Future research should be expanded to include victims' experi- victims on perpetrators. Further. this confinement in physical and ences of and perpetrator's use of coercive control tactics. Research emotional being for victims lends itself to the development of is needed to explore the similarities and differences for how confusion. fear. and doubt about the circumstances experienced. coercive control is experienced by different cultures based on essentially altering victims' sense of self (Stark. 2007). ethnicity. country of origin. gender. socioeconomic status. sexual Isolation allows perpetrators to escalate dependency and main- orientation and identity, and disabilities. Although this research tain control. Participants in this study identified ways in which focused on commonly used tactics. we recognize that both wide- perpetrators maintained control of their victims through the use of ranging and targeted tactics may be used to exert coercive control. entrapment. abuse. and threats. Although there was some overlap Identifying the tactics commonly used to achieve coercive control between these and the compliance-inducing coercion strategies can facilitate more expansive screenings by professionals that may identified by Biderman (1957. as cited in Baldwin et al.. 2015) also include screenings for specialized tactics or experiences ac- such as degradation and threats, participants discussed threats in a cording to the larger diversity of victimization. Future research more nuanced way by making distinctions in the types of threats should focus on the development and validation of a universal made (i.e., threats to self vs. threats to family or threats via screening tool. which could be used by professionals to initially authority). Participants also discussed predators' use of high- assess a range of common predatory tactics implemented accord- pressure tactics, which sometimes involved generating a sense of ing to a coercive control framework. Furthermore. additional re- urgency in a situation to elicit an immediate response from a search related to common tactics used across victimization types victim. In this sense. the high-pressure tactics discussed by pro- and research examining how the coercive control theory fits var- fessionals were different in nature than those discussed by Lan- ious situations would help to establish the concept of coercive genderfer and Shimp (2001). which focused specifically on finan- control as a broader framework for using isolation and control to cial exploitation. exploit an individual. Taken together. these grooming and isolation strategies allow predators to gain control over their victims. The term psycholog- Clinical and Policy implications ical chains was used by one participant to describe how varied coercive control tactics, such as grooming and isolation. entrap The language of coercive control (Stark. 2007) allows for broad victims. Stark (2007) used the term invisible cage to describe this recognition of the limitations of freedom that arc pursued by phenomenon. Once predators succeed in gaining control over their perpetrators as they exert a self-claimed authority to victimize victims, they will use any means necessary to maintain it. Coercive individuals. Viewing each phase of the predation process as part of 3502-023 Page 8 of 11 EFTA_00001607 EFTA00156948 152 DURON, JOHNSON. HOGE. AND POSTMUS the coercive control framework has implications for practice. The treatment. Universal screening procedures. aside from a formal use of a coercive control framework can lead to improvements in screening measure. might include such questions as - Within the the ways in which potential victims and predators are screened and last year have you had any encounters with an individual who has identified. Currently. a range of screening tools exist to assist with gained your trust or developed a closer relationship to you by identifying signs of child abuse (Zolotor et al.. 2009). IPV (Rabin. meeting your most pressing needs. giving you gifts. or comple- Jennings, Campbell. & Bair-Merritt. 2009). human trafficking menting you? Have you experienced feelings of being alone or (Bespalova. Morgan. & Coverdale. 2016). and elder abuse (Ful- separated from friends or family members? Have you had to check mer. Guadagno. Bitondo Dyer. & Connolly. 2004). Additionally. in regularly. been pushed by, pressured to engage in sexual activ- there arc a number of risk assessment instruments designed to ity. given money to. or done things for this person that you feel predict future violence or recidivism: however. similar to screen- unsure about?' Questions such as these recognize the process ing tools. risk assessments tend to be specific to a particular type revealed in this study's findings. which suggest that an individual of victimization or perpetration. and the predictive validity of such may have a new person in their lives or a known person with a instruments varies (Campbell. French. & Gendreau. 2009: Singh. closer relationship who uses grooming tactics to gain trust and Grann. & Faze'. 2011: Yang. Wong. & Coid, 2010). Although isolate the individual to achieve control that is maintained through there is value in the specificity of such tools for professionals a variety of strategies. Examining predation from the framework of whose aim is to identify particular types of victims, they may be coercive control can potentially help to destigmatize victimization. impractical for professionals working in settings where several Although services often require a victim to identify with a panic- types of victims and polyvictimization are encountered. such as ular form of victimization (e.g.. human trafficking). using the emergency rooms. doctors offices. clinics. educational settings. standardized language of a coercive control framework may ini- 3 and law enforcement agencies. It would be cumbersome to imple- tially allow victims to focus on the particular predatory tactics they ment multiple screening tools and yet using just one may result in experienced. failure to identify other types of abuse beyond what is being A primary finding of this study was that predators use common screened and assessed. Given these challenges. professionals gen- tactics to maintain control of their victims. Although there are erally only screen for one risk area at a time. certain risk factors that may make an individual vulnerable to As study findings suggest. predatory behaviors unfold through a predation. professionals working with or on behalf of victims also series of stages that can vary widely from one victim to another. emphasized that victimization is not a sign of individual weakness. 7 Therefore. it is possible that individuals seeking services may In 2015. coercive controlling behaviors within an intimate or perceive their situations differently depending on their stage of family relationship were made a criminal offense in England and predatory engagement and the degree of coercive control tactics Wales (Wiener. 2017). The recognition of coercive control as a used by perpetrators. In the grooming stage. for example. a victim criminal behavior validates the experiences of victims enduring may not yet fear their abuser, despite the fact that predatory these predatory practices and normalizes discussions around abu- behaviors and red flags exist. Alternatively. victims who feel sive behaviors beyond physical violence (Stark. 2018). The imple- entrapped in their relationships may hesitate to disclose abuse out mentation of such a policy is not without challenges. It requires of fear of repercussions. law enforcement to have a strong understanding of how to recog- Further. although there is a recognized need for professionals to nize coercive control within abusive relationships and use the collaborate as part of service provisions. organizations are often criminal charge to build a case (Stark. 2018). However. the enact- divided by type of victimization. despite the fact that many indi- ment of such a policy represents a broader shift of our understand- viduals experience victimization of several types. For example. a ing of coercive control from a behavioral tactic to a criminal victim in a human trafficking situation may also view her trafficker behavior and perhaps can serve as a first step toward the devel- as an intimate partner. Thus, there may be value in the implemen- opment of broader policies that focus on the coercive control tation of a cross-systems approach in which professionals work process. across victimization type to address victims' experiences with predatory tactics. Often a barrier to this type of collaboration is that the professionals in each system use their own language and References framework to describe victimization. This makes it difficult for Baldwin. S. B.. Fehrenbaclier, A. E. & Eisrnman. D. P. (2015). 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Arc they referred to you? If yes. how? a. How do you define the term predatory alienation? b. What are some barriers to identifying clients? b. How is this term similar to other terms you may use that c. How would you improve identification? describe the same phenomena? (this establishes the term used by interviewee for predatory tactics) d. Is there a specific screening process? If yes. what does the process look like? c. How have you seen this in your work? 7. How do online predators. human traffickers, con mists. d. How long have you worked with or on behalf of victims of gangs. cults, and other groups use (predatory alienationAerm (term used by interviewee)? used by interviewee) to isolate young adults and senior citi- zens? 2. How long have you worked with or on behalf of victims? Years or Months a. What arc the grooming practices used to target and control young adults and senior citizens? 3. Have you received any specialized training for working with victims of (predatory alienationAerrn used by interviewee)? b. What are the high-pressure tactics used in scams and exploitative relationships to manipulate. control, and take a. How long was this training? advantage of senior citizens? b. Who conducted the training? 8. What makes young adults and senior citizens particularly vulnerable (predatory alienation/term used by interviewee)? c. What was the content of the training? a. How can young adults and senior citizens protect them- d. Did you find it helpful? selves? 4. How do you recognize a victim or perpetrator of (predatory 9. Do you have other feedback to provide about the investiga- alienation/term used by interviewee)? tion or advocacy provided to victims of (predatory alienation/ term used by interviewee)? a. Are there specific predatory patterns and common tactics among perpetrators? a. What arc the challenges with the current policy and pro- cess? b. Are there certain risk factors among victims? b. What am the strengths of the current policy and process? 5. What is the nature of your work with victims of (predatory alienation/term used by interviewee)? c. Do you have any specific recommendations for improving service provision for victims? a. Do you provide advocacy? If so. how? b. Do you assist with the investigation? If so. how? c. Do you provide representation (legal or other)? If so. how? Received July 29. 2019 6. How is a victim of (predatory alienation/term used by inter- Revision received July 27. 2020 viewee) identified among your clients? Accepted August II. 2020 ■ E-Mail Notification of Your Latest Issue Online! Would you like to know when the next issue of your favorite APA journal will be available online? This service is now available to you. Sign up at https://my.apa.org/ponaUalens/ and you will be notified by e-mail when issues of interest to you become available! 3502-023 Page 1 I of 11 EFTA_00001610 EFTA00156951